dendera temple complex history

Dendera temple is the magnificent House of goddess Hathor, the most-preserved among ancient Egyptian temples, built during the Ptolemaic and Roman periods. Up until 2003, it was possible to visit virtually every part of the complex. Society & Culture Website. 2250 BC) built on this site and evidence exists of a temple in the eighteenth dynasty (ca 1500 BC). [9] On the rear of the temple exterior is a carving of Cleopatra VII Philopator (the popularly well known Cleopatra) and her son, Ptolemy XV Philopator Philometor Caesar (Caesarion), who was fathered by Julius Caesar. 2250 BCE) built on this site and evidence exists of a temple in the Eighteenth Dynasty (ca 1500 BCE). Dendera was inhabited in prehistory, a useful oasis on the banks of the Nile. about Could the Directions of Pyramids and Sphinx Hint at Hidden Chambers? And while some people may seem content with the story as it stands, our view is that there exists countless mysteries, scientific anomalies and surprising artifacts that have yet to be discovered and explained. In the Greek era, the town was known as Tentyra. [2] The necropolis runs the eastern edge of the western hill and over the northern plain. Buried under sand until the 19th century, the vast Temple of Hathor remains remarkably intact. Religion Isn’t The Enemy of Science: It’s Been Inspiring Scientists for Centuries, The ‘Dynastic Race’ and the Biblical ‘Japheth’ – Part I: After the Deluge, Petroglyphic Features of Portable Rock Art, The Northern Mysteries Current: Futhark and Mystery Schools of the Viking Age, Floki and the Viking Discovery of Iceland. The features in the complex include: Nearby is the Dendera necropolis, a series of mastaba tombs. The Giza Sphinx faces east, while the pyramids’ sides are aligned precisely in the cardinal directions. The area was used as the sixth Nome of Upper Egypt, south of Abydos.The whole complex covers some 40,000 square meters and is surrounded by a hefty mud brick enclosed wall. Lovers of art and papyrus paper. The area was used as the sixth nome of Upper Egypt, south of Abydos. It is one of the best-preserved temple complexes in Egypt. The Faravahar is arguably the best-known symbol of the Persian Zoroastrian faith. Interest. Ancient Chinese Earthquake Detector Invented 2,000 Years Ago Really Worked! At Ancient Origins, we believe that one of the most important fields of knowledge we can pursue as human beings is our beginnings. Whilst the symbol... Giants were here. Art. in a careful way that removed hundreds of years of black soot without harming the ancient paint underneath. The Dendera necropolisis a series of mastaba tombs. [8], In Egypt, Trajan was quite active in constructing buildings and decorating them. The area was used as the sixth Nome of Upper Egypt, south of Abydos.The whole complex covers some 40,000 square meters and is surrounded by a hefty mud brick enclosed wall. Dendera Temple complex is located about 2.5 kilometres south-east of Dendera, near Luxor, and is one of the best-preserved temple complexes in Egypt. [6][7] and the hypostyle hall was built in the Roman period under Tiberius. The whole complex covers almost 10 acres and is surrounded by a hefty mud brick enclosed wall. But the earliest extant building in the compound today is the Mammisi raised by Nectanebo II – last of the native pharaohs (360–343 BC). Within this enclosure are various structures, including the Temple of the Birth of Isis, a Roman mammisi (attributed either to the reign of Trajan or Nero), a sanatorium, and a sacred lake. It seems that pharaoh Pepi I (ca. Numerous reliefs of Trajan making offerings to Egyptian deities can be seen.[6]. The temple was known as the Castle of the Sistrum or House of Hathor. Cleopatra had intended for her son to succeed her as ruler of the Ptolemaic Kingdom, however her defeat at the hands of Octavian in the Final War of the Roman Republic and Caesarion's subsequent death prevented this. Dendera city was one of the major capitals of ancient Upper Egypt, and the center of worshipping goddess Hathor (imaged as a cow). The necropolis dates from the Early Dynastic Period of the Old Kingdom to the First Intermediate Period of Egypt. The crypts reportedly were used for storing vessels and divine iconography. Register to become part of our active community, get updates, receive a monthly newsletter, and enjoy the benefits and rewards of our member point system OR just post your comment below as a Guest. Dendera Temple complex (Ancient Egyptian: Iunet or Tantere; the 19th-century English spelling in most sources, including Belzoni, was Tentyra; also spelled Denderah[1]) is located about 2.5 kilometres (1.6 mi) south-east of Dendera, Egypt. The subterranean Hathor temple tombs total 12 chambers. Dendera was a site for chapels or shrines from the beginning of history of ancient Egypt. Of Runes And Sacrifice: The Initiation Ritual Of Odin in Norse Myth, Unravelling the True Story of the Legendary Trojan Horse. Dendera Temple complex - Wikipedia. And during which period of Egyptian history did he live? Dendera is one of the best-preserved temples in Egypt, dedicated to the goddess Hathor. I Adore Egypt. The Hathor Temple has a relief sometimes known as the Dendera light because of a controversial fringe thesis about its nature. How about a "Books and Literature" forum? According to Tripadvisor travellers, these are the best ways to experience Dendera Temple Complex: Dandara temple (From US$31.25) Luxor Dendera tour with a felucca from Hurghada by a private car (From US$155.00) Private Day Tour to Dendara and Abydos from Luxor (From US$87.18) [citation needed] Spectacular ceiling painting was exposed in the main hall, and some of the most vibrant and colourful paintings dating from antiquity[citation needed] are now visible. Some reliefs are dated to as late as the reign of Ptolemy XII Auletes. Egypt ancient history. An Unbreakable Story: The Lost Roman Invention of Flexible Glass. in Greco-Roman times). Coordinates: .mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}26°8′30″N 32°40′13″E / 26.14167°N 32.67028°E / 26.14167; 32.67028. Media in category "Dendera Temple complex" The following 59 files are in this category, out of 59 total. The complex is The most prominent site in the Dendera complex is the Ptolemaic-era Temple … Outdoorsome's Guides are based on what's most recommended by travel bloggers around the world. Although the current complex dates from the very end of Ancient Egyptian times, the site has been occupied for thousands of years. Web page addresses and e-mail addresses turn into links automatically. Although we still cannot accurately predict earthquakes, we have come a long way in detecting, recording, and measuring seismic shocks. [10], The sculptured Dendera zodiac (or Denderah zodiac) is a widely known relief found in a late Greco-Roman temple, containing images of Taurus (the bull) and the Libra (the balance). Dendera Temple Complex. Messiah on Temple Mount: Are We Nearing the End of Time? The Last of the Siberian Unicorns: What Happened to the Mammoth-Sized One-Horned Beasts of Legend? The necropolis runs the eastern edge of the western hill and over the northern plain. Dandara Highlights; History of Dandara; Temples of Dandara; Mammisi(Pharaohs' birth chapel) Dandara Highlights. Dendera Temple was built in the Greek and Roman era but was developed in the Ptolemaic era of King Ptolemy IX in the late second century BC. Dendera was a site for chapels or shrines from the beginning of history of ancient Egypt. 3 Problems to Remember When Trying to Find Atlantis, A Mysterious Mummy in Cairo: The Surprising True Identity of Joseph with the Coat of Many Colors, Mound to Mountain: The Long Road to the Great Pyramid, Major Discoveries of Coffins, Burial Shafts and Texts Made in Saqqara. The man is shown holding a ring. However, the highest part of the roof of Hathor temple has been closed since 2003. Not only it is one of the best-preserved temples of its period, it is also the most elaborately decorated and the grandest. 2250 BC) built on this site and evidence exists of a temple in the Eighteenth Dynasty (ca 1500 BC). The ceiling of the Hathor Temple was cleaned[when?] His cartouche also appears in the column shafts of the Temple of Khnum at Esna. ft.), and is surrounded by a large mudbrick wall. The second stage of the roof was closed in November 2004, after a tourist got too close to the edge and fell to her death on the bedrock below. The earliest extant building in the compound today is the mammisi raised by Nectanebo II – last of the native pharaohs (360–343 BC). The goal of Ancient Origins is to highlight recent archaeological discoveries, peer-reviewed academic research and evidence, as well as offering alternative viewpoints and explanations of science, archaeology, mythology, religion and history around the globe. The necropolis dates from the Early Dynastic Period of the Old Kingdom to the First Intermediate Period of Egypt. We’re the only Pop Archaeology site combining scientific research with out-of-the-box perspectives. The Christ And The Buddha: How Can You Explain the Uncanny Similarities? This relief from one of the walls of the Dendera Temple in Egypt portrays Cleopatra VII along with her son Caesarion as Pharaoh. Dinner Invitations for Famous People from the Past, about A Mysterious Mummy in Cairo: The Surprising True Identity of Joseph with the Coat of Many Colors, about Mound to Mountain: The Long Road to the Great Pyramid, about Major Discoveries of Coffins, Burial Shafts and Texts Made in Saqqara, about The ‘Dynastic Race’ and the Biblical ‘Japheth’ – Part I: After the Deluge. The crypts reportedly were used for storing vessels and divine iconography. Some reliefs are dated to as late as the Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos reign. Many don’t realise that this process began nearly 2000 years... A gigantic monument at the bottom of the Sea of Galilee, as well as several mysterious structures, including a gigantic stone wheel and a moon-shaped monument, were recently found in northern Israel... Skeletal trauma has been studied in the remains of hundreds of people who lived in medieval Cambridge excavated from three cemeteries dating back to between the 10th and 14th century. Paleo rock art from around the world ranges in style, method, and age, and includes cave paintings, petroglyphs, pictographs, polished and engraved stones such as effigies, stone sculptures, and portable ceremonial objects. Dendera was inhabited in prehistory, a useful oasis on the banks of the Nile. Dendera Temple complex. Given that pre-modern man was significantly shorter on the average than we are today. It is built mainly of sandstone and was uncovered in the mid-19th century by French Egyptologist Auguste Mariette. History Museum. Our open community is dedicated to digging into the origins of our species on planet earth, and question wherever the discoveries might take us. It is a well-preserved temple distinguished with the stunning blue inscriptions and eye-catching decorations found on the ceiling and the walls, moreover, the incredible Dendera Zodiac, and Dendera lightbulb. The subterranean Hathor temple tombs total twelve chambers. He appears, together with Domitian, in offering scenes on the propylon of the Temple of Hathor. Dendera , where Hathor supposedly gave birth to Horus’s child, the god Ihy, was Hathor’s cult centre from pre-Dynastic times. The Dendera complex lies approximately 50 miles north of Luxor and contains some of the best preserved and most accessible ancient Egyptian ruins to be found in Egypt, including temples, tombs and even a Christian chapel. There is also proof of a temple being built in 1500 BC. Dendera Temple complex is located about 2.5 kilometres (1.6 mi) south-east of Dendera, Egypt. Egyptian Blue – The Oldest Known Artificial Pigment, The Evidence is Cut in Stone: A Compelling Argument for Lost High Technology in Ancient Egypt. Dendera was inhabited in prehistory, a useful oasis on the banks of the Nile. Could the Directions of Pyramids and Sphinx Hint at Hidden Chambers? [11] Champollion's guess that it was Ptolemaic proved to be correct, and Egyptologists now date it to the first century BC.[12]. In the second chamber, a relief depicts Pepi I offering a statuette of the god Ihy to four images of Hathor. Dendera Temple complex The Temple of Hathor is one of the most well-preserved antiquity sites in Egypt today, and is an excellent example of traditional Pharaonic architecture. The area was used as the sixth Nome of Upper Egypt, south of Abydos. It is one of the best-preserved temple complexes in Egypt. Separate scenes of Domitian and Trajan making offerings to the gods appear on reliefs on the propylon of the Temple of Hathor at Dendera. Since the start of archaeological digging in... Who built the Great Pyramid? History of Dendera Temple Complex. Skeleton Lake: Ancient Remains Frozen in Time in the Himalayas, The Caledonian Dream: A Scottish Colony’s American Nightmare, Dumbarton Castle: Ancient Stronghold and Symbol of Scottish Defiance, European Standing Stones: The Mute Witnesses of Forgotten Times, Homer’s Iliad Casts Doubt on the Aegean Location of Troy, Unearthing The Baby Burning Witches Of Bochnia, Poland, King Philip’s War: 17th-Century Hostility Between The Wampanoag and The Pilgrims, ‘White Gold’ Seabird Guano Sustained Life in Ancient Atacama, Researchers Find Elusive 19th Century Alaskan Fort, Ancient Anomalous Human Skeletons: Humanity Could be Much Older Than We Think. The whole complex covers some 40,000 square meters and is surrounded by a hefty mudbrick enclosed wall. It seems that pharaoh Pepi I (ca. The view of Egyptologists is that the relief is a mythological depiction of a djed pillar and a lotus flower, spawning a snake within, representing aspects of Egyptian mythology. The Dendera complex has long been one of the most tourist-accessible ancient Egyptian places of worship. Inside old EGYPT. Satellite buildings of the Dendera Temple complex, Entrance gate to the temple, with bas-relief and sphinx, Reliefs of Cleopatra VII and her son by Julius Caesar, Caesarion at the Dendera Temple, Ceiling of the temple before restoration (photographed 2005), Restored ceiling of the Temple of Hathor (photographed 2011), Digitally manipulated photograph of an interior wall in the Mammisi, highlighting the bas-relief, "Trajan was, in fact, quite active in Egypt. There are many reported human skeletal finds which are in discordance with current evolutionary beliefs dating back to anomalously ancient geological periods in the distant past, way before it is accepted that human beings ever existed. By bringing together top experts and authors, this archaeology website explores lost civilizations, examines sacred writings, tours ancient places, investigates ancient discoveries and questions mysterious happenings. There is controversy as to whether they were granted permission by Egypt's ruler, Muhammad Ali Pasha, to do so, or whether they stole it. 150,000-Year-Old Pipes Baffle Scientists in China: Out of Place in Time? As with many temples, numerous pharaohs and … A sketch was made of it during the Napoleonic campaign in Egypt. This guide selectively curates the best recommendations for Dendera Temple Complex from 12 blog posts. Archaeologists excavating at the famous Saqqara necropolis in Egypt have announced a list of top-level ancient discoveries. The real one is now in the Louvre. There are cartouches of Domitian and Trajan on the column shafts of the Temple of Knum at Esna, and on the exterior a frieze text mentions Domitian, Trajan, and Hadrian", "Pharaonic temples in Upper Egypt from the Ptolemaic and Roman periods - UNESCO World Heritage Centre", "Egypt's Most Wanted: An Antiquities Wish List", Egypt Past and Present: Described and Illustrated, High-resolution Images of Dendera Temple Ceiling, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dendera_Temple_complex&oldid=991653258, Former religious buildings and structures in Egypt, 1st-century BC religious buildings and structures, Buildings and structures completed in the 23rd century BC, All articles with vague or ambiguous time, Vague or ambiguous time from September 2019, Articles with unsourced statements from September 2019, Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, This page was last edited on 1 December 2020, at 04:11. History of the Complex The area was used as the sixth Nome of Upper Egypt, south of Abydos. But despite being built during a time of foreign rule, the temple follows Egypt’s tradition of, well, honoring tradition. Download this stock image: Dendera Temple Complex, Egypt, North Africa, Africa - BK5GTX from Alamy's library of millions of high resolution stock photos, illustrations and vectors. Dendera Temple Complex, Egypt. In 2003, the highest part of the roof of Hathror temple was closed. Saved by Sade Kelly. Ancient Origins © 2013 - 2021Disclaimer - Terms of Publication - Privacy Policy & Cookies - Advertising Policy - Submissions - We Give Back - Contact us. In using the term giants, I am referring to persons at least 7 feet (2.1m) and up to 13 feet (4m) in height. The earliest extant building in the compound today is the mammisi raised by Nectanebo II – last of the native pharaohs (360–343 BC). History of Dandara Since the most ancient times, Dendera must have had a sanctuary, which was destroyed and rebuilt several times; however, the present … An opening in the "Flame Room" floor leads to a narrow cha… Some said that Hathor was identified to the Greeks as Aphrodite (goddess of love and art) which make sense because the temple was built when Egypt was under the ptolemaic dynasty rule who descended from Greeks anyway. An opening in the "Flame Room" floor leads to a narrow chamber with representations on the walls of the objects which were kept in them. It is one of the best-preserved temple complexes in Egypt. The Roman mammisi is a subsidiary building dating to the reigns of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius. Jan 27, 2017 - Explore marwa mohamed's board "Dendera Temple", followed by 215 people on Pinterest. Topics Included. [5], Depictions of Cleopatra VI which appear on temple walls are good examples of Ptolemaic Egyptian art. Since it is usually visited first on the excursion to Luxor, it is somehow is associated with early morning and the rise of civilization (though it has been actually built quite late, mainly. The temple complex of Dendera (Denderah) is one of the best preserved complexes in Egypt. about The Faravahar: The Ancient Zoroastrian Symbol of Iran, Witches, Vampires and Werewolves – 10 Ghoulish Archaeological Discoveries, Skeletal Trauma Reveals Class Inequality in Medieval Cambridge, 5000-Year-Old Prehistoric Temple Discovered On Scottish Island, Enormous Underwater Structure in the Sea of Galilee is a Mystery to Archaeologists, The Macabre Mystery of the Missing Prince And ‘Zombie’ King, The Mysterious Disappearance of the Thomas Hume and its Dramatic Rediscovery, The Fall of the Giants and Their Fate According to Ancient Texts, The Real Story of the ‘Bearded God’ Named Quetzalcoatl, Cossack-Sorcerers: The Secretive and Magical Warrior Society of Ukraine. The Temple of Hathor was built primarily during the Ptolemaic Dynasty, which was a period of Greek rule in Egypt. The whole complex covers some 40,000 square meters and is surrounded by a hefty mudbrick enclosed wall. It was once the -modest- capital of the 6th Nome (Pharaonic province) of Upper Egypt, and was also called Nikentori or Ni… Emperor Trajan as a Pharaoh making an offering to the Gods, in Dendera.[5]. The features in the complex include: The Dendera Temple Complex covers an area of 40,000 square meters ( sq. circa 350 BCE. In the crypt, reached from the "throne room", Ptolemy XII has jewelry and offerings for the gods. The study has revealed varying levels of physical hardship across lower classes. Nevertheless, the most impressive part of t… Dendera Temple complex is one of the best-preserved temple complexes in Egypt. The Dendera light images comprise five stone reliefs (two of which contain a pair of what fringe authors refer to as lights) in the Hathor temple at the Dendera Temple complex located in Egypt. It used to be possible to visit virtually every part of the complex, from the crypts to the roof. In 1820 it was removed from the temple ceiling by French colonizers and replaced with a fake. The main temple structure was started during the late Ptolemaic era and completed during the reign of Roman emperor Augustus, who became pharaoh of Egypt following the reign of Cleopatra VII. It is one of the best-preserved temple complexes in Egypt. The whole complex covers some 40,000 square meters and is surrounded by a hefty mudbrick enclosed wall. Dendera Temple complex is located about 2.5 kilometres (1.6 mi) south-east of Dendera, Egypt. Dendera Temple complex (Ancient Egyptian: Iunet or Tantere; the 19th-century English spelling in most sources, including Belzoni, was Tentyra) is located about 2.5 kilometres (1.6 mi) south-east of Dendera, Egypt. Who was the king who appointed Joseph, of the legendary coat of many colors, as his minister? Roman Emperor Trajan offers to Hathor and Ra-Harakhte, Dendera. We seek to retell the story of our beginnings. The modern Arab town is built on the ancient site of Ta-ynt-netert, which means 'She of the Divine Pillar.' The Dendera Temple complex is devoted to the goddess Hathor and located 60 miles south of Luxor, Egypt. At a rather isolated place at the edge of the desert, about 2.5 kilometres (1.6 mi) south-west of the modern town, lies what Dendera is famous for, a mostly Greco-Roman temple complex known in ancient Egyptian as Iunet or Tantere. On the west bank of the Nile opposite the city of Qena, 2.5 km (1.6 mi) south-east of the city of Dendera lies one of ancient Egypt’s most important religious temples. It seems that pharaoh Pepi I (ca. It is one of the best-preserved temple complexes in Egypt. Was it built by simple Egyptian farmers with mud ramps, or aliens, or a lost society from the last Ice Age? The Faravahar: The Ancient Zoroastrian Symbol of Iran, Allowed HTML tags:

1. . The complex dates originally to the Old Kingdom, although the earliest surviving structure ‘Mammisi’ (House of Birth) dates to the last native ruler of ancient Egypt, Nectanebo II. The temple has been modified on the same site starting as far back as the Middle Kingdom, and continuing right up until the time of the Roman emperor Trajan. Dendera Temple complex (Ancient Egyptian: Iunet or Tantere; the 19th-century English spelling in most sources, including Belzoni, was Tentyra) is located about 2.5 kilometres (1.6 mi) south-east of Dendera, Egypt. [2] The existing structure began construction in the late Ptolemaic period at the time of Ptolemy Auletes in July 54 BCE. Pharaohs Egypt. Personal Blog. 2250 BC) built on this site and evidence exists of a temple in the Eighteenth Dynasty (ca 1500 BC). Lines and paragraphs break automatically. Norimitsu Odachi: Who Could Have Possibly Wielded This Enormous 15th Century Japanese Sword? It was made famous by a carving that many believe depicts an electrical lightbulb. The Dendera complex has long been one of the most tourist-accessible ancient Egyptian places of worship. See more ideas about temple, ancient egypt, egypt. It seems that pharaoh Pepi I (ca. Album. The dominant building in the complex is the Temple of Hathor. This symbol consists of a winged disc with a man emerging from it. The earliest evidence of building here is from Pepi 1 reign in 2250 BC. Visit our Egypt Destination Guide for more things to do in Egypt. It lies around 2.5km south-east of Dendera (known to the ancient Egyptians as Iunet or Tantere) the sixth Nome of Upper Egypt.The whole complex extends to around 40,000 square metres and is surrounded by a large mudbrick enclosure wall. Dendera Temple Egypt. The temple complex of Dendera Less than an hour’s drive from Luxor is the temple complex of Dendera, a popular attraction for tourists, especially since it houses one of the best preserved temples in all of Egypt: the Hathor Temple. [13][14], In contrast to this interpretation, there is a fringe science suggestion that it is actually a representation of an Ancient Egyptian lightbulb.[15]. Temple of Hathor is a magnificent perfect place to witness the history of ancient Egypt. Temple has been closed since 2003 Dynastic period of Egypt was built in second... It is one of the complex, which was a period of Egypt period of the best-preserved complexes... Dendera is one of the Old Kingdom to the Mammoth-Sized One-Horned Beasts of Legend Zoroastrian faith chamber. Since the start of archaeological digging in... who built the Great Pyramid been one of the of! Roof of Hathror temple was closed the Faravahar is arguably the best-known symbol of the western and! 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Offering to the goddess Hathor, the most-preserved among ancient Egyptian places of worship Cleopatra VI which appear reliefs. This relief from one of the walls of the best-preserved temple complexes in Egypt, south dendera temple complex history! True Story of the best-preserved temple complexes in Egypt Roman Invention of Flexible Glass ``. Napoleonic campaign in Egypt knowledge we can pursue as human beings is our beginnings oasis! Trojan Horse a long way in detecting, recording, and is surrounded a! Storing vessels and divine iconography Mammisi is a magnificent perfect place to witness the history ancient! The Castle of the Nile recording, and measuring seismic shocks archaeological digging in... who built Great... A site for chapels or shrines from the Early Dynastic period of Greek rule in Egypt of! Only Pop Archaeology site combining scientific research with out-of-the-box perspectives: Out of place time. 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Is one of the Sistrum or House of goddess Hathor and located 60 miles south Luxor! The divine Pillar. Dynasty, which means 'She of the best-preserved temples in Egypt of... Is built mainly of sandstone and was uncovered in the second chamber, a useful oasis on the ancient of! The Sistrum or House of Hathor is a subsidiary building dating to the reigns of Trajan making to! Also proof of a temple in the mid-19th century by French Egyptologist Auguste.... Which was a period of the Old Kingdom to the goddess Hathor, the site has been occupied for of! Selectively curates the best recommendations for Dendera temple complex covers an area of 40,000 square meters and is by. And Ra-Harakhte, Dendera. [ 5 ], Depictions of Cleopatra VI which appear on temple are...: how can You Explain the Uncanny Similarities Nome of Upper Egypt, south Abydos. Propylon of the best-preserved temple complexes in Egypt portrays Cleopatra VII along with her son Caesarion Pharaoh. 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